After centuries of uninterrupted peace, stability and prosperity, Bhutan woke up to the changed realities of the world after a series of unprecedented natural disasters struck in quick successions bringing untold destructions and with it, a feeling of insecurity, uncertainty and anxiety among the Bhutanese people. This paper will try to briefly deal with the sense of security that the Bhutanese drew (and continues to draw) from their sustained faith in the power of the natural order that has been embedded in the country’s long Buddhist and naturalist traditions. The paper will also deal with how this belief in striking the right balance of the natural order resulted in the country’s unique conservation efforts. A study of the country’s largely intact natural environment will show that a small effort on the part of an individual nation can indeed show the way forward for the rest of the world.
Unfortunately, such initiative has its limit and the paper will show how Bhutan is now becoming an unwitting victim of the thoughtless destruction of the natural world elsewhere driven by an uncontrolled greed that seems to catch everyone. Though taken off guard in the beginning, this analysis goes on to show that Bhutan has indeed not only recovered from these jolts, but is now in the process of taking systematic safeguards against future disasters by constantly drawing upon its deep seated faith. In conclusion, the paper gives empirical evidence on the state of Bhutanese ecology based on fresh new data that were the result of the second Gross National Happiness survey.
Introduction
On 27th July, 2009, a group of eight
boys left their homes and went out on what was an unusually bright sunny day
for what they thought was just a regular day out (Kuensel, 2009).
Little did they know what was in store for them. The boys crossed the Wangchhu[2] and ventured on through the vegetation on its
other bank. The river was then just waist high and used to wading through such
water, they passed through without any difficulty. After they had had their
fill of fun, they returned. However, as soon as they reached the river, the sky
turned sour and there was a heavy monsoon downpour. Before they could cross,
the river swelled and the first signs of panic showed on the boys. It was then
that oldest among them decided to take matters in his hand.
After asking his younger peers (his own little brothers included) to stay back
while he got help from people across the river, he swam across. True to his
words, the boy returned with a few men from the town[3].
It was then that the boy along with the rescuers saw, to their horror, the
seven little boys stranded in the middle of the already swollen river. The rain
fell steadily and the boys clung onto a slippery boulder in the middle of the
river.
There was no time to waste, but the people on site
were helpless against the wrath of nature. They thus called for help from the
people from the settlement above who in turn informed the district headquarter.
Within half an hour, a team of police rescuers came to the site. They threw
ropes and mobile phones in plastic bags to the stranded children who caught
hold of both items. Message was passed to the boys to tie themselves to the
rope. It was in those times of despair that a call for help was sent to the
management of the Chukha hydro power project to hold up the water in their dam
so that the flow downstream could be controlled. However, all this while, the
rain kept pounding without any sign of letting up. Night fell by the time
officials including the head of the district administration reached the spot.
As the rescuers were able to do hardly anything more than witness the scene as
helpless spectators, the agitated children’s cries for help became more
desperate. Hours passed by this way, and finally the project authority had to
take a call on the dam’s steadily rising water level which was now at the point
of bursting. The rest is history. All seven boys were washed away.
This single incident when a whole team of rescuers,
however ill-prepared they were, failed to rescue even a single boy in seven
excruciating hours inevitably raised a lots of questions about Bhutan’s
preparedness to face up to such challenges. The call to step up the country’s
disaster management abilities grew as the incident also proved in the most
tragic way the increasing unpredictability of nature. As it was, the incident
came just after the most devastating cyclone induced flooding that country had
seen in recent times. It became clear that in this world of high exploitation
and degradation, no one was spared of nature’s vengeance.
However, before we proceed any further, we must now
take into account the country’s historical and religious underpinnings. It then
becomes clear that the steadfast adherence to the country’s highly regarded
value systems have ensured relative stability and prosperity in Bhutan.
Calamities in Bhutan were far and few in between that they were considered
almost non-existent. However, somewhere along the line, this good fortune has
lead to a sense of complacency that might have caused this whole debacle.
Bhutan: A country profile
Bhutan’s recorded history dates back to the eighth
century when the Indian saint Guru Padmasambhava came to country on invitation
of a local king. It is said that through the display of his grandeur in
restoring the health and prosperity of the King, the whole of the kingdom
became his field of conversion (Aris, 1979)[4]. Buddhism
was introduced with all of its accompanying value system among the people.
However, it was not until the seventh century that Bhutan emerged as a unified state
(Adrussi, 2005). The charismatic Tibetan religious hierarch Zhabdrung Ngawang
Namgyel introduced a system of dual religious and secular rule which stressed
the wellbeing of all sentient beings[5].
After 1907, however, a succession of enlightened Monarchs
took over the country’s affairs and introduced unprecedented security,
stability, peace and prosperity (Ura, 2010). Every facet of governance was
aimed at promoting wellbeing. With a strong Buddhist underpinning, the state’s
responsibilities extended to overseeing all life forms. Thus, with a strong
emphasis on harmony, the country achieved its prosperity without putting at
stake its environment. Indeed, in about a century’s rule of Monarchy, Bhutan
grew so used to peace and security that it was almost unimaginable that
anything bad could befall the country.
With only about 700,000 people, Bhutan’s generous
total land area of 39,500 provide ample livelihood. Bhutan today enjoys one of
the highest per capita in the region at USD 2,277 (NSB, 2011). On the back of
its strong hydropower and tourism sector, Bhutan’s economy continues to see a
strong growth[6]. In all respects of human development,
Bhutan continues to see strong improvement[7].
The belief in the natural
order
Faith in Bhutan can be of two distinctive origins
though they can only be briefly touched upon here for the sake of brevity (for
details, see RSPN, 2006). Broadly speaking, the Bhutanese worldview is shaped
in equal measures by its Buddhist faith and the pre-Buddhist naturalist traditions
which have remained entrenched in the Bhutanese societal make-up even though
Bonism from where they derive has largely been replaced.
The Buddhist concern for environment in turn is again
twofold. First of these is the Buddhist philosophical consideration for all
life forms. Buddhism regards all sentient beings (which in Buddhism implies
even such things as vegetation) as being in a cyclical order of existence where
each of them are dependent or are a consequence of the other. Thus, it is
famously proclaimed that in our unceasing existences, every being is related to
each other through a karmic[8] connection. It then
goes that due to our unending births from the time of the inception of the
universe, there is no being on this earth who has not been our parent in one of
our previous births[9]. Based on such philosophical
basis, a sophisticated school of moral instructions exist in Buddhism[10].
The second of these considerations is the
Buddhist conception of the universe[11]. According to
Buddhist theories, the universe was formed after the right balance of the four
primal elements[12] had been struck through the
convergence of merit of all beings. Consequently, the vitality of life depends
on this balance. While this balance can be maintained by further accumulation
of merit, this is not always the case. Bhutan’s most revered saint figure Guru
Padmasambhava is alleged to have said that “It is not the world that is
changing, but the people who induce the changes.” Through uncontrolled
exploitation resulting from greed, the balance of the elements can be
disturbed. Thus, from the Buddhist perspective, it is clear that the world’s
woe today is the result of our untamed greed.
Then there are the pre-Buddhist beliefs that have
remained in people’s popular culture as traditions. Largely naturalist in
nature, they work by deifying elements of nature and amount to what is called
nature worship. Different locations and elements of nature are believed to be
the abodes of deities whose protectorate extend over a nation, district,
locality or in some cases, even just a family. Thus, nature is transformed into
an idea that is at once sacred and worthy of being worship. An elaborate
hierarchy of such divinities has come to be that forms a parallel faith to
Buddhism. It is said that if people put faith in Buddhism for provision of
spiritual nourishment and possibility of enlightenment, then people dabble in
this form of worship for their immediate welfare. Nature represents to them the
forces that have to be constantly propitiated and honoured so as to receive
their benediction in guise of timely rainfall, abundant harvest, prosperity and
good health (Dorji, 2005). It is opportune to mention here that if Buddhism is
considered a higher level of discipline which is practiced in monastic
settings, then Bon faith is most predominant among the people who are closest
to nature like the agriculturists. Above all, the prevalence of such faith
deters people from irreverent acts of destruction which can be wrought upon
nature where people are not similarly faithful.
Thus, religious and traditional beliefs which are
considerate of the very spirit of nature among the devout population of Bhutan
translate into care and protection of our natural environment.
Bhutan’s conservation
successes
The official development policy of Bhutan reflects its
deep-seated beliefs. High emphasis is placed on maintaining its ecology in its
pristine form. Thus, every developmental activity must take into consideration
the impact it might have on the environment. It is believed that whatever the
short term gains, in the long run, any policy which erodes nature will
ultimately be unsustainable[13]. This cautious
development policy[14] has today resulted in
Bhutan being able to retain much of its natural ecology. 72% of Bhutan’s total
land surface remains forested and is home to a diverse range of exotic flora
and fauna[15].
The Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan which was
adopted in 2008 makes legal provisions for safeguarding the ecology against
undue pressure that might result from increased exploitations in the future.
Article 5 of the constitution which is solely dedicated to environment states,
among others:
1. Every Bhutanese is a trustee of the Kingdom’s natural resources and
environment for the benefit of the present and future generations and it is the
fundamental duty of every citizen to contribute to the protection of the
natural environment, conservation of the rich biodiversity of Bhutan and
prevention of all forms of ecological degradation including noise, visual and
physical pollution through the adoption and support of environment friendly
practices and policies.
2. The Royal Government shall:
a. Protect, conserve and improve the pristine environment and safeguard the
biodiversity of the country;
b. Prevent pollution and ecological degradation;
c. Secure ecologically balanced sustainable development while promoting
justifiable economic and social development; and
d. Ensure a safe and healthy environment.
3. The Government shall ensure that, in order to conserve the country’s
natural resources and to prevent degradation of the ecosystem, a minimum of
sixty percent of Bhutan’s total land shall be maintained under forest cover for
all time.
4. Parliament may enact environmental legislation to ensure sustainable use
of natural resources and maintain intergenerational equity and reaffirm the
sovereign rights of the State over its own biological resources.
5. Parliament may, by law, declare any part of the country to be a National
Park, Wildlife Reserve, Nature Reserve, Protected Forest, Biosphere Reserve,
Critical Watershed and such other categories meriting protection.
Thus, the Constitution
which forms the basis for Bhutan’s many environmental legislations aptly
summarizes the spirit of Bhutan’s conservation effort.
One of Bhutan’s biggest successes has been its ability
to protect more than half of its territory as protected areas where
developmental activities are restricted as per the mandate of the constitution. The
protected areas system of Bhutan was initiated in the 1960’s and covered almost
the entire southern and northern regions of the country. In 1993, the parks
system was revised for better ecological representation and realistic
management. Today 51.4 percent of the country is formally declared as protected
area[16].
As a result, Bhutan today
is a carbon neutral country. Carbon-neutrality is a term used to demonstrate
that all greenhouse gas emissions from energy consumption (mainly
transport), industry, agriculture and waste, are either avoided,
reduced or offset, to a net result of zero emissions. Bhutan is in effect
a carbon sink with its abundant forest cover that is able to absorb carbon
emissions from other countries.
Although Bhutan’s per capita energy consumption has
increased in recent times, much of this requirement is met through production
of clean hydropower. The country has placed a high emphasis on tapping its rich
hydropower potential and it already generates about 40% of national revenue.
However, care has been taken to ensure that the construction of such mega
plants are as environment friendly as can be reasonably expected. Once
commissioned, Bhutan’s hydropower plants are expected to have minimum impact on
the environment as they are mostly run-of-the-mill (Choden, 2011).
In Bhutan, people are often the aggrieved party when
brought in confrontation with nature. Due to the state’s strong conservation
policies, human activities that are considered even marginally adverse to the
ecology are shot down no matter how economically viable they are. Many farmers
are now having to abandon their farmlands as wild animals ravage through them.
The latest nationwide GNH survey suggests that as many as 38% of the farmer
respondents are faced with major problems with animal predation. The state
though is helpless in the face of their own policies which forbid any
retaliatory actions. Though such helplessness can be interpreted in many ways,
it must be said that such uncompromising stance only goes to show the strong
commitment of the state.
However in return for all its initiatives and
compromises, Bhutan has gained wide international recognition for its
conservation successes. In 2005, the Fourth King of Bhutan, His Majesty King
Jigme Singye Wangchuck was given the Champion of the Earth award as the
architect of Bhutan’s recent conservation efforts. Bhutan is also acknowledged
as a bio-logical hotspot of the world for the high occurrence of bio-diversity
as much as for its enviable efforts at preserving it[17].
Occurrence of natural
disasters
Despite its sustained efforts to conserve the best in
nature, Bhutan has of late been facing unprecedented calamities. Though it
cannot be denied that there is increased pressure on the environment within
Bhutan itself, these disasters have often been the result of a larger malaise
for which Bhutan bears little personal guilt. It only goes to show the
limitation of a single country’s effort. It must also be said that given the
highly vulnerable nature of Bhutan’s location[18], the
only thing that has so far held back the strike of nature’s wrath has been the
collective merit of the people and the resultant good fortune, both of which
are now showing signs of receding as people’s need and desire for possessions
increase. This can be seen in the increased exploitation of natural resources
which, though negligible by international comparison, shows a definite
increase.
This paper will however not make a detailed
enumeration of all disasters which have struck Bhutan. Such attempts have
already been made with much greater authority by various stakeholder
institutions (see MoHCA, 2006 & UNDP, 2011). So, we will limit ourselves
here to presenting a brief synopsis of all the disasters. It will also be the
attempt of this paper to make a trend analysis of these calamities which show
an increase in frequency of late.
Sl No
|
Nature of Disaster
|
Year
|
Death
|
Cost of damage (In Million Nu)
|
Earth quake (On Richter scale)
|
||||
1
|
6.6 (Epicentre outside Bhutan)
|
1988
|
||
2
|
5.5 (Epicentre in Bhutan)
|
2003
|
||
3
|
5.8 and 5.5 (Double strike Epicentre in
eastern Bhutan)
|
2006
|
||
4
|
6.3 (Epicentre in eastern Bhutan)
|
2009
|
12
|
2501
|
5
|
6.9 (Epicentre outside Bhutan)
|
2011
|
1
|
1197.63
|
GLOF[19] and Flood
|
||||
1
|
Punakha GLOF
|
1994
|
||
2
|
Pasakha flooding
|
2000
|
||
3
|
Eastern Bhutan flooding
|
2004
|
9
|
|
4
|
Cyclone Aila induced flooding
|
2009
|
13
|
722
|
Miscellaneous
|
||||
1
|
Fire in Haa district
|
2002
|
||
2
|
Three fire accidents in Bumthang
|
26.9.10, 18.2.11, 27. 5.11
|
||
Figure I: Disaster occurrence
From these disaster statistics (while not
comprehensive), it is clear that disasters occurred in Bhutan at regular
interval. However, we can see that both the frequency and magnitude of damage
have undoubtedly been greater of late. It is also clear that earthquake is the
greatest threat that the country is faced with. This brings us to a brief
analysis of what has been held up as the causes of disasters in Bhutan.
Bhutan is located on the fragile Himalayan mountain
ranges and studies have shown that it is placed on one of the most seismically
active zones of the world. Although a comprehensive seismic zonation of Bhutan
is unavailable, its proximity to north-eastern parts of India, which is the
‘most active’ seismic Zone V (Bureau of Indian Standards), indicates that
majority of Bhutan is either in Zone IV or V. Records suggest that four great
earthquakes of magnitude exceeding 8 on the Richter scale occurred during 1987,
1905, 1934 and 1950.
As a country with some of the highest mountains in
Bhutan, Bhutan is now also faced with the threat of retreating glaciers on an
unprecedented scale. While the long term dangers of this situation is the
drying up of its rivers on which Bhutan has invested heavily, the immediate
danger is the formation of water bodies at the source of these rivers which can
lead to flooding with grave consequences to both lives and properties. Thus,
Bhutan is faced with grave geographical challenges.
Apart from that, with a growing population, there is
also an increasing pressure on the environment which aggravates the risk
factors. Among others, this leads to unsafe settlement patterns which come with
increased vulnerabilities (MoHCA, 2006). One of the most disturbing trends in
Bhutan is the rapid urbanization. While urbanization in itself cannot be
considered bad, haphazard construction practices that has unfortunately
accompanied urbanization like elsewhere in the region aggravates the risk factors
of disasters. However, rural Bhutan is itself not much better facing disasters
as in fact the rural populace has been shown as the most vulnerable in recent
incidences of disasters. Poverty[20] in Bhutan is
a predominantly rural concept and thus people have been compromising on safety
measures in developing their properties which are at the most risk of being
damaged.
However, it is generally agreed that disasters in
Bhutan is mostly the result of the changing realities of the world’s
environment.
Disaster management
Faced with recurrent disasters, and as a result of
such incidences as the one recounted as an introduction to this paper, disaster
preparedness and management has received attention from the highest authority
in Bhutan. His Majesty the Fifth King of Bhutan has been the main force behind
the country’s revamped disaster management abilities. Among others, His Majesty
has instituted a voluntary force called Desuup (Peace Keeper) which has
prepared hundreds of civilians to take up peace time duties. They have been
trained in rescue and disaster management skills and are expected put their new
capabilities to use in times of emergencies.
Bhutan’s first professionally trained National Search
and Rescue Team (NaSART) was formally launched with 20 members from diverse
professional backgrounds who will in turn become master trainers and replicate
such capabilities all across the country. The need for such specialized
personnel was felt for a long time in the country because in life and death
situations, professional capabilities was the main difference between a
successful operation and a disaster. However, apart from these specialists, the
armed personnel of Bhutan have been the frontline force responsible for
Bhutan’s disaster mitigation and management efforts. In recent times, soldiers
of the Royal Bhutan Army have been deployed all over the country to help people
rebuild their lives in aftermath of the recurrent disasters. Bhutan’s
constitution mentions that “a person shall have the responsibility to
provide help, to the greatest possible extent, to victims of accidents and in
times of natural calamity” (Article 8.6) thus making it the responsibility of
every Bhutanese to respond.
Bhutan has also developed legislative, institutional
and funding mechanisms to deal with natural disasters and other emergency
situations. Drawing their inspiration from the Constitution, various acts,
by-laws and other legislations have been prepared to not only manage the
country’s environment but also to give a framework for disaster management.
Among others, Environment Assessment Act (2002), Bhutan’s Water Policy (2003),
Bhutan Building Rules (2002), Bhutan National Disaster Risk Management
Framework (2006), National Disaster Management Bill, National, District and School
Disaster Management Planning Guidelines were formulated.
Figure II: Disaster Management Institutions as per the
Disaster Management Bill of the Kingdom of Bhutan
At institutional level, a multi-sectoral coordination
mechanism has been prepared under the National Disaster Management Authority.
The Department of Disaster Management has been formed under the Department of
Home and Cultural Affairs as the central coordinating agency in August 2008
after it was upgraded from a division under the same ministry. Today, with
technical assistance from the Department, a network of all relevant agencies
has been formed at both national and local level to meet the need of disaster
preparedness and management.
One of the greatest tragedy of natural and other
calamities is the huge financial cost involved. However, a sound financial
arrangement can have the effect of not only increasing efficiency in disaster
management, but it can also result in economy of the whole rebuilding effort
afterwards. The Disaster Mitigation, Prevention and Preparedness Budget, His
Majesty’s Relief Fund and Major Disaster Fund have been introduced to that
effect. Finally, realizing that disasters are inevitable despite all efforts in
this age of high degradation, the insurance policy of Bhutan has been
strengthened to reduce the impact of tragedies by ensuring the lives and
properties of people[21].
GNH survey report:
Empirical evidence on the state of Bhutanese ecology
This paper will conclude with an analysis of the GNH
survey report in giving empirical evidence on the state of Bhutanese ecology.
Gross National Happiness has been adopted as the country’s official development
policy since His Majesty the Fourth King propounded the concept in the 1970s.
The philosophy is an extension of the country’s religious and traditional
values. It stresses that development in the country must necessarily encompass
all spheres of life and any development that doesn’t promote harmony is not
worth pursuing. The ultimate aim of development in Bhutan thus became people’s
wellbeing and happiness which is best achieved when there is a balance between
various elements like spiritual development, environment conservation and
material prosperity. From a merely philosophical inquiry, GNH today has a
definitive policy framework and guides much of the country’s development
process. From the four pillars[22], the achievement of
GNH is today measured against nine domains[23]. In both
these frameworks, the issue of ecological conservation features prominently.
The development of GNH policy tools has been the
result of years of scientific data collection and analysis. The latest GNH
survey was carried out in 2010 and it reveals some empirical evidence on the
state of Bhutan’s ecology and people’s perception of the country’s policies
which is vital to garner support of the public for the government’s
conservation efforts. At the same time, the awareness and knowledge of the
citizens on their environment are crucial for pro-environmental actions and in
making environmental policies successful. So, in order to test people’s
environmental awareness, a series of questions were developed to test the
intensity of environmental problems. The expressions of environmental concern
were aimed at understanding people’s concerns, knowledge and awareness on
environmental conditions in their respective communities.
The survey revealed that among others, an overwhelming
83.9% of 7142 respondents have said that they feel strongly responsible towards
conserving the ecology. Another 14.5% of the respondents were reported to
having felt similar responsibility though not with the same intensity. An
amazing 96.4% of the respondents were found supportive of the state’s tough anti-pollution
measures though again with different intensity. However, due to the higher
rural respondent numbers, the survey shows that only about 9% of the
respondents have reported to having comprehensive understanding of the issue of
climate change though another 32% reported to having a basic grasp of the
situation. The survey also found that Bhutan was doing reasonably well in terms
of meeting the people’s basic resources need with 78% of the people reporting
to have access to adequate water supply. The survey also found that 35% of the
respondent had ownership of some kind of automobiles[24] which
comes with various implications.
However, the survey has revealed some alarming
environmental issues that are mainly felt among the farmers who are the closest
to nature. 52% of the farmer respondents have claimed that wildlife was a major
constraint in the past 12 months while an additional 21% have also reported to
having similar problems though at a lesser scale. 38% of the farmers reported
that they suffered major crop damage while 25% reported some damage to their
crop. As many as 87% of the respondents have reported to having left some parts
of their fields fallow specifically due to wildlife threats.
The survey also shows various other emerging environmental
concerns like landslide, flood, unpredictable weather patterns, littering and
pollution. Though most of these have been persistent problems, the gravity of
their situation has certainly increased of late. Thus, they will have strong
policy implication in the future.
Conclusion
It has been the attempt of this paper to show that the
people’s belief system that draws from both Buddhist and naturalist traditions
has had a huge impact on Bhutan’s conservation. It has been argued that the
relative stability and prosperity of Bhutan has been the result of the people’s
abiding faith in the power of collective merit. Thus, this factor, where they
exist, has been promoted as a motivating factor for the care of nature.
However, the paper does acknowledge the limitation of
such faith system and shows that increased needs will eventually lead to
thoughtless exploitation of our natural resources. And when such things happen,
the balance of nature is offset. Nature’s ability to correct itself is
stretched to its limit. The consequence has been shown as nature’s way of
teaching a lesson through the inflicting of great calamities.
It has also been the effort of this paper to show that
even a need based utilization of resources will ultimately be unsustainable as
need itself increases due to factors like overpopulation. Thus, preparedness
and management of disaster has been posited as the way forward in an
increasingly volatile world. It is hoped that the environmental best practices
of Bhutan which have their root in the people’s faith is emulated across the
world as the environmental challenges that we face today require a global
effort to tackle successfully. After all, Bhutan is too small a country to even
hope to remedy the world’s woes alone.
Bibliography
Ardussi, J (2004). Formation of the state of Bhutan
(‘Brug gzhung) in the 17th century and its Tibetan antecedents.
In Christoph Cuppers, ed. The Relationship between Religion and State
(chos srid zung ‘brel) in Traditional Tibet. Lumbini International
Research Institute.
Aris, M (1986). Sources for the History of Bhutan. Wien:
Universitat Wien.
Aris, M (1979). Bhutan. The Early History of a
Himalayan Kingdom. Warminster, UK, Aris & Philips.
Choden, T (2011). Bhutan energy and environmental
security. Prepared for a Consortium of South Asian Think Tanks (COSATT) Project
on Energy and Environmental Security: A Cooperative Approach in South Asia.
5-7 June, Colombo.
Dema,
K (2009). Nothing new in Wangchhu tragedy report. Kuensel. November
8, 2009. http://www.kuenselonline.com/2011/?p=13093
Dorji, L (2011). Bhutan’s Glaciers Meltdown: Threats
and the need for Joint Response Mechanism. Presented at Sikkim University,
Sikkim, India.
Dorji, T (2005). History of Origin and forms of
manifestation of Radrap, Local Divinity of W.Phodrang. In Proceedings
of the 5th Colloquium. National Museum of Bhutan,
Paro.
GNHC (2011). Bhutan National Human Development Report Sustaining
Progress: Rising to the Climate Challenge. Gross National Happiness
Commission. Thimphu.
Hopkins, E. Washburn
(1906). The Buddhistic rule against eating meat. Journal of the
American Oriental Society, Vol. 7, pp.455-464.
MoHCA, (2006). National Disaster Risk Management
Framework. Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs, Thimphu.
NSB (2011). Statistical Year Book. National
Statistical Bureau. Thimphu.
NSB (2011). National Accounts Statistics. National
Statistical Bureau. Thimphu.
RSPN (2006). Buddhism and the Environment. Royal
Society for the Protection of Nature, Thimphu.
Ura, K (2010). Leadership of the Wise: Kings of
Bhutan. Published by Dasho Karma Ura. Thimphu
Pommaret, F. (2004). Yul and Yul Lha: The Territory
and its Deity in Bhutan. Bulletin of Tibetology, 40(1).
[2] This tragic incident took
place in the district of Chukha in south western Bhutan through which this
river flows. During the course of its passage through the place, two dams for
the country’s oldest and biggest (Chukha and Tala respectively) hydropower
plants are built. Parents of most of these boys worked for the projects.
[3] The location of this
incident was in a deep gorge below the settlement of Wangkha, a distance of 16
km from the district headquarter. The time needed to get to the town and return
was roughly an hour.
[4] Among his many remarkable
deeds, Guru Rinpoche is particularly renowned for assimilating elements of
nature worship into Buddhism as a means of placating the strong Bon opposition
to the spread of Buddhism in Tibet. Though it may be considered by puritans as
a corruption of the doctrine, its many benefits included not only the
acceptance of the new religion by the Tibetan masses but it also ensured the carryover
of a sophisticated system of living in harmony with the various elements of the
natural world. Thus, in Bhutan, people came to believe in an existence that
were in accord with understanding the ways of nature. This fact could, without
much exaggeration, be contrasted against the rather egoistic presumptions of
the western world which believed nature was hardly anything more than their
fiefdom of which they should take command.
[5] The first state laws
introduced in the country were credited to him or his lineage holders. In these
laws which were based on the sixteen pure human conducts, provisions were made for
the protection and sustainable use of the bounties of nature. These could
possibly be considered amongst the very first modern legislations on
environment (Aris, 1986).
[6] The average growth rate of
the economy for the year 2005-2010 was 8.7%.
[7] Life expectancy increased
from 66.3 to 68.9 from 2005 to 2010. From 45% in 1994, Bhutan’s adult literacy
rate increased to 55.5 in 2007. Bhutan has achieved universal coverage in child
enrolment in school, health coverage and provision of basic amenities.
[8] Karma is an important
consideration in Buddhism as a force which dictates the circumstances of our
existence. It is believed that positive accumulation of merit by means of right
actions will gain us merit which will result in the development of favourable
situations for us in the future. It is said that what we are now is the result
of what we did in the past and what we will be in the future will be the result
of what we do now. Thus, for the general Bhutanese, this is a positive
motivation to be good to all life forms that exist.
[9] Enlightenment in Buddhism
is a belief that a being is forever able to cut off him/herself from the
negative circumstances that leads to such repeated birth. Thus, every being
while being caught in a fatalistic situation, can hope to better his
circumstances through the accumulation of positive merits which will lead to
his developing enlightened qualities.
[10] The Jakata parables relate
the account of an ascetic who cuts a tree that was blocking the view of his
meditation hut. As a consequence, in his next life, he is born as a monstrous
creature with the same tree sprouting from his head with all its accompanying
discomfort and pain. Brahminism from which some Buddhist philosophies are
directly borrowed believes, though theoretically, that plants too are kinds of
animals with life in them. See The Buddhistic Rule against
Eating Meat by E. Washburn Hopkins
(1906).
[11] “On space rests that body
we call the air; On air rests the body of water; On water rests the body of
earth, And the earth holds in it all the life forms” (RSPN, 2006).
[12] Earth, water, fire and air.
[13] One of Bhutan’s steps
towards conservation has been the restriction that it imposed on the number of
tourists visiting the country as high tourist numbers has often been linked
with environmental degradation.
[14] Despite its huge economic
potential, due to restrictive policies, the mining industry in Bhutan
constitutes only 2% of the GDP (NSB, 2011)
[15] Owing to its location
between two major bio-geographic realms, the Malayan and Palearctic, Bhutan’s
biodiversity wealth includes 5,603 species of vascular plants including 579 wild orchids, 46 rhododendrons, over 300 medicinal plants
and at least 30 bamboo species. Close to 200 species of mammal including the
Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris), Snow Leopard (Unicia uncia), Red Panda
(Ailurus fulgens), Takin, (Budorcas taxicolor), Golden Langur (Trachypithecus
geei), Asiatic Elephant (Elephus maximus), and the Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschus
chrysogaster leucogaster). The Royal Bengal Tiger living at 4000 meters above
sea level in Bhutan is an extraordinary finding and has been recently
documented on film by the BBC. Bhutan also has 678 recorded species of bird. At
least 14 species are globally threatened and ten fall within the restricted
range.
[16] Royal Society for the
Protection of Bhutan Website http://www.rspnbhutan.org/
[17] Royal Society for the
Protection of Nature Website http://www.rspnbhutan.org/
[18] Bhutan
lies hidden in the folds of the eastern Himalayas between two giant neighbours;
China (Tibet) to the north and the Indian territories of Assam and West Bengal
to the south, Arunachal Pradesh to the east and Sikkim to the West. With a
total area of 38,384 sq. kilometres, Bhutan lies between 88o 45’ and 92o 10’
longitude East and 26o 42’
and 28o 15’
latitude North. Bhutan is a mountainous country except for a small flat strip
in the southern foothills with hot and humid summer. The valleys in the central
and northern parts are separated by mountains as high as 7200 metres.
[19] Glacial Lake Outburst Flood
[20] While acute poverty is not
reported in Bhutan, income poverty of 21% is the national poverty rate. Of
this, maximum poverty incidence is reported in rural Bhutan.
[21] Mandatory insurance schemes
in Bhutan covers both people and properties for immediate relief. However, with
increased awareness, people are now getting voluntary insurance coverage as
well.
[22] Cultural promotion,
environmental conservation, good governance and balanced and sustainable
development.
[23] Psychological wellbeing,
health, time use, education, cultural resilience, community vitality, good
governance, ecology diversity and living standard.
[24] 62,700 automobiles in
Bhutan of all types
@ densore
Very informative and a worth reading paper.
ReplyDeletegood paper.
ReplyDelete