Abstract
This paper tries to identify the origin, types and some recurrent themes
in the Bhutanese folklores through the exploration of literature whose
publication has proliferated since the late 1990s. It posits Bhutanese folklore
as an important national identity with an innate value system that nourishes
the very soul of this tiny Kingdom amidst giant neigbours at a time when
everything we have achieved so far could yet be lost. For being a vehicle of
transmission of time honoured national ideals and standards, the paper proposes
the preservation and promotion of Bhutanese folklore for all times to come by
bringing out its thematic significance and the artistic treatment that it has
received in each of the folk genre, which in itself is of much value[2].
Introduction
Bhutan is a
small Himalayan Kingdom nestled between India and China with a little over six
hundred thousand people spread over its 38,394 square kilometres’ area. As
small as its size is, Bhutan is a majestic nation blessed with successive
generations of visionary leaders and their farsighted development approaches
which allowed Bhutan to develop at its own pace and on its own terms. It has
laid the foundation of conditions favourable to the preservation and promotion
of its vibrant Buddhist and folk tradition. Bhutan is today a world leader on
this front.
Separated by
extreme diversities of altitude, climate, topography and vegetation, a unique
way of life evolved in Bhutan which is best expressed in its vibrant folklore.
Pre-modern Bhutanese society was loosely divided along the lines of Zhung (king
and the government), Dratshang (the monk community) and Misey (the
people). Life and culture of the first two strata was dictated by the best of
Buddhist values and practices. For the last cohort, the folks, lives were based
upon simple wisdoms of life passed on orally through generations and simple
adaptation of Buddhist teachings found in such work as the Jakata tales. All
these ideals of life combined to give Bhutan a common folk identity with an
innate ability to dissolve tensions along the lines of caste seen in many other
countries in the region. Like in the folklore, people could move and mix
fluidly in the Bhutanese society and every individual could hope to better
his/her standing through the harmonious channelizing of his potentials in the
best pursuit of folk values.
Authorial
anonymity of Bhutanese folklore makes identification of their origin difficult.
However, it is commonly believed that two types of folklore has evolved in
Bhutan. The first type constitutes a work of body inspired principally by
religious teachings of the Buddha. The main proponent of this folk genre may be
attributed to the dominant monastic community which played a key role in the
propagation of Buddhist faith and inculcation of Buddhist values among the lay
people. These works include simple portrayal of worldly affairs in terms of the
suffering brought about by an excessive materialistic attachment with a strong
religious underpinning. These folk genres are in the form of fables and
parables adapted into local context which may be lightened appropriately to
suit the level of people’s grasp. Their principal functions include the teaching
of the laws of casualty and other Buddhist principles which may otherwise be
beyond lay comprehension.
The second type
of Bhutanese folklore may be closer to the conventional usage of the term folk.
While the previous work is designed for the Bhutanese folk, these people are
essentially the main proponent of this body of folklore. These folklores
express their worldview and often serve the purpose of expressing their
grievances against perceived injustices. They may at times simply serve plain
entertainment purposes in a society which is largely devoid of any outlet
towards this end. This folk works come in the form of tales, songs and folk
compositions which are similar in treatment to the Western poems.
However, the
differences in this two essentially different nature of works may be blurred as
overtime all elements of Bhutanese society came to represent the same Buddhist
worldview which was not always the case. The differences may also be treated as
inconsequential as all folk works are of the same Bhutanese inspiration and
serve essentially similar purposes.
For a detailed
discussion on Bhutanese folklore, a look at some prominent types of folk work
in existence is of paramount importance. Next a closer look at the recurrent
themes in all these works will help us identify the fabric of Bhutanese society
and its Buddhist and folk underpinnings.
Myths, legends,
tales and other genres of folklore has evolved in Bhutan through the centuries.
Some common themes run through all these genres. Hard work, dedication,
honesty, loyalty, wisdom and other values deemed fit for a holistic life are
stressed.
Folk Tales
Folktales
constitute the single largest body of Bhutanese folklore. Every Bhutanese
community living in near isolation from each other owing to the extremes of
nature has evolved its own unique tales with varying compositions, themes,
characters and mode of transmissions. It is of interest to note here that
Bhutan is a diverse nation with as many as 20 different languages.
Folk tales
served both educational and entertainment purpose in the Bhutanese society.
Bhutanese folktales feature a range of characters from kings and queens to gods
and demons, from lords and paupers to animals and animal-like creatures. Story
telling is employed to cultivate universal values such as compassion and hard
work while promoting a culture of intolerance to vices such as greed,
dishonesty and inactivity. Some Bhutanese folk tales are similar to those in
neighbouring India, Tibet and Nepal. Some indefinite influences can also be
seen of the Jakata tales-Buddhist fables depicting the activities of various
incarnation of the Buddha-and through other Buddhist texts and accounts of
travelers and pilgrims.
Bhutanese
folktales can be a simple lullaby to put children to sleep or a lewd anecdote
for the sensory pleasure of blossoming lovers. As in any other stories from the
region, Yeti, the abominable snowman leaves its mark on many
Bhutanese folktales.
Lozey (Bhutanese folk
verse)
Literally
translated as ‘ornaments of speech,’ lozey is a Bhutanese folk
genre which is roughly equivalent to the Western ballads with a similar
treatment of themes and use of verses. It is a rich source of information on
Bhutanese society and its history in the absence of a better archive. Despite
the usage of colloquial language, lozeys often achieves poetic
height through the employment of such poetic modes as similes, metaphors,
symbols and a constant rhythm. This form of folklore is unique to Dzongkha, the
national language of Bhutan though variations of it exist in other dialects
too.
Tsangmo
Tsangmo is a popular
folklore genre in Bhutan. However, it is difficult to pin point an equivalent
in popular Western compositions. Lozey is oral in nature and
consists of four lines or a quatrain with two couplets. Each couplet is a
self-contained entity. The first couplet usually makes a statement and
introduces a tension. The second couplet then completes the statement by
resolving the tension. The subject is usually love or hate and involves cajole
or ridicule. It usually involves a contest and a mock fight may break out with
veiled threats hurled at each other.
Folk Songs
Folksong is a
highly refined art which achieves perfection with a master performer. Unlike
modern songs, this song is an expression of the nation’s values and standards.
Bhutanese folksongs can be classified into zhungdra (literally
meaning the song of the centre and originated from the Dzongs which
house both the religious and the secular power) and boedra (songs
originated from medieval court servants as an expression of loyalty, dedication
and fidelity to their lords). Some minor categories include zhey,
yuedra, zheym, alo, khorey and ausa all of which has
their origin outside the realm of the government and the lords who wielded its
authority.
Some songs are
dance oriented while others are voice oriented. However, in either case, the
songs are sung to the accompaniment of folk musical instruments, popularly
the dranyang, pchiwang and lingm. The former
two are stringed instruments while the last one is a flute.
Bhutanese Folk Theatre
When dealing in
theatre in the conventional sense, Bhutan has none. However, there are folk
performances in Bhutan that borders on theatrics and in some sense may be
considered as Bhutanese theatre. Tshechu is a religious
festival that is conducted in the open courtyards of the dzongs and
monasteries. They are a part of the rich corpus of liturgical melodies
developed for rituals by the monastic community. Dancers wear masks of animals
and other mythical creatures and don flowing robes. They performed to the music
played by an orchestra positioned at the other end of the courtyard. Cham, as
these dances are also called, is one of the grandest spectacles in Bhutanese
performing tradition. It is a meditation in movement and the dancers conceive
themselves as the deity they are representing, with every gesture not just
symbolic but imbued with the power of the deity. The people on the other hand
believe that gods are pleased with dramatic representation of themselves and put
good faith in these performances to liberate them from all that cause suffering
by the mere sight of the cham.
While it is
highly problematic to regard these performances as folk theatre as they differ
from secular theatre in both form and content, they contain in them certain
elements which are folk in nature. They assume folk theatrics in the way
certain dances are adapted into folk performances. Most notably, Acho
Phento and Pholay Molay are introduced into the
otherwise entirely religious exercise to highlight the vices of humankind and
the power of religion to redeem common folks from them. Besides tshechu is
an occasion for the people living in this predominantly rugged land to come
together to express their solidarity and reaffirm their devotion in a grand
folk festival of their own making where the participants are largely the folks
themselves.
Art, Craft and Architecture
Bhutanese art
does not exist for its own sake. More important than their aesthetic quality
which is valued quite antithetical to Buddhist values of non-attachment,
paintings of Bodhisattvas and the likes exist for instructional purposes. Art
is mostly a religious obligation, the anonymous creators of such works blending
indigenous and Tibetan traditions.
Combined with
various craft and architecture, art in Bhutan is known as zorig chusum.
Zo is the ability to make, rig is the art or craft
and chusum is thirteen. The thirteen arts and craft in Bhutan
are the shingzo (woodwork), dozo (masonry), lhazo (painting), jinzo (clay
art), lugzo (casting of religious articles), shagzo (making
wooden utensils), garzo (blacksmithing), troko (silversmithing), thagzo (weaving), tsazo (bamboo
work), dezo (traditional paper making) and tsemzo (embroidery)
The most
distinctive Bhutanese architectural landmarks are dzongs. Usually
of monumental height, size and shape, most are built on strategic sites such as
mounds, hills or ridges. Overlooking entire valleys, dzongscontrolled
important land routes. During the unification of Bhutan and subsequent invasions
by Tibetan and Mongol forces, many dzongs were built as a
chain of defensive fortresses with watch towers and observation posts. Later
they served as administrative and religious centers to fulfill emerging
socio-political needs. They are mostly built from clay bricks, stones and
woods. Remarkably, not a single iron beam or nail is used in the construction
of a dzong.
Recurrent Themes in Bhutanese Folklore
Hard work
One theme that
is common to all Bhutanese folklore irrespective of their origin or form is
hard work. Being a predominantly farming society, Bhutanese of the yore had to
bear heavy field work besides transporting government loads and contributing to
the government revenue. All these had to be done with brute all, day in, day
out. For the non-farming Bhutanese, lives were no easier. Serving in the
government and religious communities were equally taxing. It all added up to a
lot of work for the average Bhutanese. If there was a quality needed across
board, it was the willingness to put in untiring effort into ones work.
Naturally, hard work cut across Bhutanese folklore as the single most dominant
theme. From a village boy being crowned a mighty king to a mighty king being
dethroned due largely to their hard work or the lack of it, the Bhutanese
folklore scene has it all.
Work ethics
also painted a very savory picture of the Bhutanese society. The people had
their fate in their hand and it was for them to decide what they want. The
folklores told a story of a ideal society where what one does alone counted,
where one did not need to get bogged down by some rigid system of caste that
was the undoing of many a great civilization, home and abroad.
Loyalty
To
counterbalance what could potentially become a destabilizing element in the
society where everybody work for himself or herself alone, a word of caution is
thrown in the form of loyalty. While one must attempt to better ones
circumstances, it must not be at the cost basic universal values. Loyalty to
ones superiors, peers and to ones core values is stressed in many Bhutanese
folklore. An ominous war ballad where the lord hero foresees his imminent
demise but nevertheless put his loyalty to his master above personal
premonition is an abiding image of Bhutanese folklore.
Faith
A feel good
factor amidst such self annihilating values is the assurance in the knowledge
that someone more than all the people in the world is overseeing ones’ every
thought, speech and action and in times will come to deliver justice for every
good service rendered. Faith in an unseen cosmic power lightens mood and give
heart to the desperate. Buddhist and other traditional faith is the cornerstone
around which the lives of all Bhutanese revolve. Not surprisingly, this quality
finds its way in many Bhutanese folklore. A particular story of a woman who
sincerely believed that a dog’s canine her son offered her as a piece of the
Buddha’s tooth cured all her misfortune strike a chord with every Bhutanese.
Compassion
If loyalty to
ones’ superior is a basic Bhutanese value, Buddhist faith urges people to be
compassionate and considerate to the needs of those less fortunate than
themselves. Compassion thus comes out as a prominent folklore theme. Stories
abound of powerful kings who learnt to outlive their royal luxuries to lead Bodhisattva
lives in the service of their subjects. On a more mundane level, there are
tales of people who sacrifice the little they have because of the need they
feel to benefit others. This people endure much hardship but live in the
comfort of being useful when called for.
Subversion
Though
Bhutanese society abounds in values to promote wholesome wellbeing, elements of
dissent sometimes creep into its folklore where common people are pitted
against representatives of ruling elites. These are the common people’s
expression of discontent against perceived flaws in the social order. This
folklore usually comes in the form of tales where the upper classes are
ridiculed so that they can be changed for good without the need for bloodshed
and other overt means. Ultimately, these are tales of change where the
society’s complacencies are mirrored, whatever they are, so that they can be
rectified. This thematic element must be seen as the society’s attempt at
correcting itself through a robust system of check and balance where everything
goes, even ridicule.
Fidelity to Relationship
In a close knit
society like Bhutan, existence depends on the people’s ability to work
together. Family and other interpersonal relations are thus stressed through
depiction of victory of common endeavour against formidable odds. In a most
enlightening tale, a huge number of toads come together to defeat a roaring
tiger in a race. Bhutanese continue to cite from this tale whenever some things
become difficult and require pooling of common resources.
Care for Nature
A defining
feature of Bhutan is its care for the natural environment. In a bold statement,
the Constitution of Bhutan mandates that the country maintain 60 percent of its
total land area as natural forest. This statement draws from the Buddhist
worldview which states that all living beings have lives and it is sinful to
destroy them. Bhutanese folk works are strewn with stories where concern for
natural objects are rewarded with good fortune and those with a disdain for
nature are taken to task.
Conclusion
For countries
like Bhutan whose economic and military might is insignificant at best, its
status as a nation depends largely on its people and their identity based upon
popular culture and folklore. This paper has tried to posit Bhutanese folklore
as an important national identity with an innate value system that nourished
the very soul of this tiny Himalayan Kingdom through many generations.
However, today
Bhutan has reached a stage in its evolution where everything that it once cherished,
from environment to tradition, from people to their values, might get
sidestepped in a mad rush to achieve newer heights of development. Bhutan has
made great economic stride and has consistently achieved double digit growth
over the last decade riding on the back of exponential hydropower generation.
The danger is
that as the country is exposed headlong to outside influences, many of its
innate qualities that once kept together the country might break down. The
country has already seen unprecedented pressure on its limited natural
resources and compromises are being made on the national policy of keeping
Bhutan naturally vegetated for all times to come. A similar erosion of national
values can also be seen with the people increasingly taking to Western ideals
of materialism.
The answer to
all the problems the country is faced with might seem obvious. For a country
with a long and proud history with a wealth of value system, it can fall back
on its past and reclaim its value to counter the new trends that inevitable
exposure creates. However, it is easier said than done. It is not always easy
to let people see the value of their own goodness, especially of their folklore
with its rustic, almost crude connotation.
At a time when
uncensored Western media is beamed at an unprepared young population, it is no
longer possible for people to do things like they were always done. There has
been a rapid loss of folklore and its values on the young people, urban and
rural alike. No stories of the past are ever told today. With a whole host of
mindless games and other entertainment outlets, people no longer has patience
to hear their grandparents narrate a folk tale. It is a sad tale because
Bhutanese folklore are not just entertainment, but within it lay a whole wealth
of wisdom and ideals to be passed on for the wellbeing of the nation.
While a
complete fallback on folk wisdom alone may be out of tune with modern problems
that emerge every day, Bhutan must find a way to carry forward its rich
folklore and its innate qualities if it is to prosper and develop into the
wholesome society that it aspires to be. Fortunately, it has both the public
and political goodwill. In the first national survey on folklore, as many as 95
percent of the people support state patronage of folklore preservation and
promotion. Promotion of national identity also finds its way in all public
policy statements and folklore is a big part of that identity.
Folklore
tradition is still alive in rural Bhutan where some 70 percent of the people
live. With a little bit of effort and careful planning this may be preserved
for all times. Appropriate folklore scholarship and its sensible promotion may
ignite interest among urban youth for whose modern sensibilities, folklore may
appear crude at times. Efforts are already underway to transcribe folklore and
archive folklores of Bhutan. However, Bhutanese folklore is essentially oral in
nature and if new forms of transmission must be found, they must be true to the
original idea of folklore composition which gave it its value in the first
place.
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[2] This work borrows heavily from the extensive work done on Bhutanese folklore
by Dorji Penjore, a senior Researcher at the Centre for Bhutan Studies.
Throughout this work, partial or entire segments from his work has been
liberally lifted with his express consent.
@ densore
Good research work.
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